LIVING IN THE ISLAMIC EMPIRE
Robin Doak*
Muslim conquests did not destroy the existing towns and cities. When the Muslims conquered an area, they took land only from the royals and their followers, and did not disrupt the existing system of government. The Muslims understood that to profit from their newly conquered lands, they needed to allow life to continue as before. From the earliest days of the empire, the caliphs wanted to discourage Muslims from interacting with conquered peoples. Under Umar, the second rightly guided caliph, the Muslims began the practice of building garrison towns (towns that have soldiers permanently stationed in them) in conquered regions, where the conquerors would live apart from the conquered. These garrison towns served several functions. First, they prevented problems from arising between Muslim troops and the newest subjects of the Islamic Empire. They also kept Muslim troops from picking up the habits and customs of the newly conquered. Finally, they made it possible for life in conquered cities and towns to continue functioning as normal, since they were not suddenly filled with Muslim soldiers. Yet despite the measures taken to keep conquerors separate and different from the conquered, the language, religion, culture and social systems of the Arab Muslims had a profound influence on the lands they conquered. This began with Arabic, which was the official language of the empire and was required for all government business. To get along with those who held power—and to keep their jobs in the government—conquered peoples began learning to speak and write Arabic.
Kufa
The first garrison town was Kufa, in southern Iraq. It was built in 638 by General Saad, who served under Umar. Saad chose the site because it had excellent grazing lands. Here, the soldiers’ camels, horses, and sheep would be well fed. The town was built out of baked bricks and marble columns that were taken from nearby ruins. Saad’s home and the mosque were in the center. Saad himself served as Kufa’s governor. In Kufa, the soldiers lived in areas of the city that were segregated by tribal associations. Within a tribal district, one clan (a group of close-knit families) might all live on one specific street. As the garrison city grew, each tribal district built its own mosques and created its own associations.
As wives and children joined the soldiers, Kufa’s population skyrocketed. Just a few years after its founding, it was home to more than 40,000 people. To support this growing population, merchants soon flocked to Kufa. They expanded the city, building out from the center of the town. Over the years, Kufa developed into one of the most important cities in the empire. It became a Shiite political center, as well as a center for learning.
Basra
Another early garrison town in southern Iraq was Basra, founded by Umar in 635. In 665, the caliph Muawiya appointed his half-brother Ziyad commander of Basra. Ziyad was a strict disciplinarian and ruled the town with an iron fist. He was also a brilliant administrator, implementing a registry department in Basra for official documents. Under Ziyad’s command, all official documents were sealed with wax, then marked with the governor’s own peacock stamp. Ziyad even persuaded Muawiya to follow his example, marking the first time government documents were formally registered in the Islamic Empire.
Baghdad
Baghdad, the most glorious city built by the Muslims during the Islamic Empire, was not founded as a garrison town. In 762, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur decided he needed a new
capital for himself and his descendants. Al-Mansur wanted the new city in Iraq to serve as a symbol of the Abbasids’ political, commercial, and cultural superiority. The new capital was built on the site of an ancient Persian village that had also been named Baghdad. Mansur called his capital Madinat al-Salam, which means “City of Peace,” but people continued to call it by its old name. Baghdad was located on the west bank of the Tigris River, 20 miles northeast of the former Persian capital, Ctesiphon. The site was wisely chosen. Because of its location between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers, Baghdad was surrounded by fertile land. Additionally, the city could easily be defended. Enemy troops could attack only by ship or by crossing a heavily-guarded bridge into the city. The most skilled builders and designers from around the empire were brought to Baghdad to work on the royal complex. About 100,000 men worked four years to complete the Abbasid city. Baghdad originally was known as the Round City. It was built in a circular plan and measured nearly 2 miles across. The city was made up of three circles set inside one another, each one surrounded by a wall. The caliph’s palace and the mosque were built in the innermost circle. In the middle circle lived courtiers, army officers, and other important people. The third circle was occupied by the rest of the people. The outermost wall was a strong one, with four gates leading to the four different points of the empire. Each gate was defended by a company of 1,000 soldiers. Merchants and businessmen set up their shops outside the outermost wall. The city continued to grow and spread. By the early 800s, Baghdad was the largest city in the Middle East. At its height, more than 1 million people made their homes there. During the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), Baghdad expanded to the east side of the Tigris River, and this area soon became the heart of the city. At its best, the city was the most cultured, beautiful, and busy metropolitan area in the world. It contained breathtaking mosques, palaces, and gardens. Like other cities throughout the empire, Baghdad was home to libraries, colleges, and hospitals. The busy boat traffic on the Tigris made it an avenue of trade. Gondolas (small, flat-bottomed boats) sailed up and down, filled with goods and people. Because it was located in the heart of the former Sassanian Empire, Baghdad’s residents and visitors could not help but be influenced by Persian culture. As a result, a Persian influence began to spread throughout the empire. In addition to the Persian influence, the city enjoyed a truly international atmosphere. As capital of the huge Islamic Empire, Baghdad attracted people from all over the world to study and do business. Scholars, poets, scientists, and other learned people came to visit and study at the libraries, mosques, and schools. Caliph Harun al-Rashid had a library with close to 600,000 books. Baghdad continued to be one of the most cultured and beautiful cities in the world until 1258, when it was destroyed and looted by the Mongols. The destruction marked the end of the Islamic Empire.
Cairo
Another center of Islamic culture was Cairo in Egypt. Cairo, located on the banks of the Nile River, was founded in 969 by the Fatimids. It served as a center of government, culture, and commerce throughout the Fatimid dynasty. From Cairo, the Fatimids took control of the gold mines of Nubia, along the upper Nile. With Nubian gold, the Fatimids controlled one of the richest regions in the empire. The gold enabled them to pay huge armies, buy supplies, and send out missionaries to convert people to Islam. The Nile River was the center of life in Cairo, and was treated with reverence and care. It was important to maintaining the waterways and irrigation canals that watered the area’s crops, and the caliph appointed several officials to make sure these things were done. The Nile also served as the means for transporting goods, people, and communications to other points in the Islamic Empire. The river made Cairo a center of the trade between the Mediterranean region and India. Close to Cairo was its twin city, Fustat, a garrison town founded around 641 by Muslims. Fustat was another important and thriving Egyptian town. The two cities eventually merged.
Cordoba
Cordoba in southern Spain has a long history of being influenced by conquerors. The city was founded around the first century b.c.e. by the Romans. In 572, it was taken from the Romans by the Visigoths, a Germanic tribe. The Muslims took it from the Visigoths in 711. In 756, Abdal-Rahman, the Umayyad prince who had escaped being slaughtered by the Abbasids, took control of Cordoba. As the capital of the Umayyad emirs in Spain, Cordoba became the jewel of Europe. It was also a center of trade and industry in the area, and the city grew rich and prospered. It was famous for the production of silk and paper. Cordoban craftsmen were especially admired for a deep red decorated leather that they produced. It came to be known—and is still known today—as cordovan. Cordoba was also a center of learning and culture, not only for the Muslim world but for Europe as well. From Cordoba and other cities in Spain, poetry, science, philosophy, and medical knowledge was absorbed from the Eastern Islamic Empire and spread into Europe. Scholars in Cordoba directly influenced European scholars, including such writers as Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) and Dante Alighieri (1265–1321). By the early 900s, Cordoba was the largest city on the Iberian Peninsula, with as many as 500,000 people living there. Even Muslims from other parts of the empire believed Cordoba was one of the most beautiful cities in the Muslim world. Many who visited the city chose to move and make their homes there. Cordoba remained under Muslim control until 1236, when it was conquered by Ferdinand of Castile (1199–1252), the king of Spain.
Trade and Industry
From the earliest days of the empire, trade was the most important industry. Early Muslim merchants were responsible for the wealth and prosperity of the empire. They also helped spread Islam, Arabic, and Arabian-Islamic culture. Kharijite merchants in North Africa, for
example, helped spread their particular brand of Islam to the people there. As a result, the Kharijites are strongest in this area today. At first, trade throughout the empire was primarily over land. Caravans of camels loaded with goods from India, Southeast Asia, and China trekked across the desert. They carried such items as grain, silk, cloth, wines, dried fruits, ivory, wood, perfume, and precious gems and metals. Trade with Africa for gold and slaves was also an important part of the merchant industry. Western Europe was of little importance as a trading partner. According to historian Bernard Lewis in The Muslim Discovery of Europe, exports from Europe were “too few and too insignificant” to deserve mention during the empire’s earliest days. The caravans traveled slowly, usually at about 3 miles an hour. At various points along the route, they could stop at a caravanserai, a sort of crude motel. Here, the caravan leader would find a room for himself and a place for his camels to rest, eat, and drink. Caravans faced many obstacles. Perhaps the most serious was the hot, dry desert. Bandits were also common along some caravan routes. But merchants were quite willing to face the risks because of the huge profits involved. The wealthiest people in the early Islamic Empire were those who had successful trading businesses. As the empire expanded, the demand for exotic goods from remote corners of the empire also grew. In addition, people in large cities such as Baghdad required constant supplies of food and other trade items. With so much demand, land trade was soon supplemented with trade by ship. Merchant ships traveled from port to port, transporting goods more efficiently and easily throughout the huge area of the Muslim Empire. Muslim traders may have operated as far north as the Baltic region and northern Europe. The Islamic Empire had many important port cities. One key port was Siraf, located on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf. Foods from Oman and goods from Africa, India, and other areas arrived by dhows, small boats with triangular sails, called lateen sails. The goods were then transported by camel caravans to other parts of the empire. During the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad quickly became the most important trading city. Goods from all over the empire were shipped up the Tigris River. At the markets of Baghdad, people could buy exotic foods and unusual trinkets. Here they might find porcelain, silk, and paper from China; gemstones from central Asia; and furs from Scandinavia. Baghdad was also an export center, with the empire’s goods shipped out to lands far and wide. As trade developed, there was a need for a standard system of money and common banking practices. During the Abbasid dynasty, two types of currency were used: In the eastern part of the empire, the Persian silver dirham was the standard unit of money. The Byzantine gold denarius
was used in the west. The values of these two currencies went up and down relative to one another, just as the value of currency does today. To handle currency exchanges, money changers became common in markets across the empire. As the money changer began lending funds and offering credit, his role developed into that of a banker. Because the Quran forbids Muslims from lending money with interest, early bankers in the empire were usually Jewish or Christian. Often they operated with Muslim merchants as partners.
Textile production was a major Islamic industry. Cities around the empire produced cloth made of silk, linen, cotton, flax, and wool. One special type of textile made in the empire was tiraz, which was cotton or linen cloth embroidered with passages from the Quran. The cloth was made in special workshops, also called tiraz, which were controlled by the caliph. Every piece made included the name and location of the workshop, the date, and the name of the current caliph. Conquests and border wars made the business of war a profitable one. Cordoba, for example, was home to workshops that manufactured thousands of tents, shields, bows, and arrows each year to supply the Islamic armies. Horses and camels to carry soldier’s goods were also bred and sold. Craftsmen throughout the empire shared their skills with one another, and the technology of one area soon spread to another. Artisans from Baghdad, for example, went to Spain and North Africa to
share their metal working techniques. From there, such skills as metalworking, weaving, and leather tanning were eventually transmitted throughout Europe.
Food in the Empire
From the eighth century to the 13th century, most subjects of the Islamic Empire enjoyed a good life, thanks to the wealth of the vast empire. Although early Arabs, particularly Bedouin tribes, generally lived on dates, milk, and the occasional bit of meat, this was no longer the case as the Muslims conquered new lands. As the empire expanded, Muslims were exposed to many exotic foods and their diets became quite varied. Cookbooks from the Islamic Empire still survive today, giving historians a glimpse into what its subjects ate. The first cookbook written in Arabic was compiled by Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi (779–839), uncle of the caliph al-Mamun (r. 813–833). The book contained recipes for many gourmet dishes that were served to the caliph and the rest of the court. These include a pureed eggplant and walnut dish and baked hen served on top of flatbread. Muslims could buy all kinds of foods at the local outdoor market. One type of shop, called a harras, sold ground meat that was combined with wheat and then fried. Other shops sold sauces, relishes, breads, and desserts. Eggplant was probably the most common vegetable. It was used in a variety of dishes and could be prepared in many different ways. Lentils were also popular. However, only the wealthiest subjects ate meats such as lamb, chicken, or veal. Pork was not eaten, because Muslim dietary law forbids it. Spices were an important part of the preparation of any meal. Popular cooking spices included cardamom, ginger, turmeric, and coriander. These spices gave Middle Eastern cuisine the distinct flavor it retains to this day. The Arabs introduced these spices to Europe. Water was the drink of choice. Because of their desert history, many Muslims considered water to be a source of life and purification. To give a person water, according to Muhammad, was an act that deserved the highest praise. The Muslims did enjoy other drinks, though. One was sekanjabin, which was water flavored with mint syrup. Water was also flavored with lemons, violets, roses, bananas, and many other sweet substances. Drinking alcoholic beverages was forbidden. Despite the variety of foods available, dates retained their popularity and importance. These sweet, fleshy fruits from the date palm tree were served fresh or used to make other desserts. Dates were even used to make a type of alcoholic beverage called khamr, which was popular despite the Islamic prohibition on drinking alcohol. Before a meal was served, it was important for all guests to wash their hands. A pitcher of water and a basin were always located near the table for this purpose. During the Abbasid dynasty, food was brought out on big brass trays and set on a low table. Diners used their thumb and the first two fingers of their right hand to eat. It was considered bad manners to lick one’s fingers.
Homes and What Was in Them
The expansion of the empire brought a change of lifestyle for many Arabs. Although many Bedouins chose to continue living their nomadic desert lifestyle, others built permanent homes in the newly-conquered lands. For the wealthy, the home consisted of a large single building with a central open courtyard. The courtyard often had a fountain or a garden in the center. In many cases, extended families lived together in these big houses, with different branches of the family living in separate apartments. Inside, the apartments contained little furniture. Ornate rugs or cushions were thrown over small square mattresses for the family to sit on. Floor coverings were important to Muslims. Rugs were both practical and decorative. They served as places for prayer, rest, eating, and entertaining. In mosques, at home, or as decorations for a royal palace, carpets were highly prized. The caliph Harun al-Rashid had 22,000 rugs in his palace. Even before Islam, carpets were important and multi-functional belongings. They were used not only as cushions, blankets, and pillows when a nomad was at home in his tent, but were also useful during travel. Rugs could be thrown across the back of a camel or horse like a saddle, or used as sacks to carry possessions. Some rugs were huge works of art that took months, even years, to create. They might include distinctive ornamental patterns such as outlines of flowers, leaves, fruit or geometric patterns (collectively known today as arabesque, which means “in the manner of Arabs”). These pictures were created by the careful placement and tying of thousands of knots. Pictures of gardens were also popular. Particularly spectacular rugs might also be hung on the walls. Rugs were made of every fiber from wool to silk. Some were even woven with silver and gold thread and studded with gemstones. One common use for rugs was in prayer. Prayer rugs, large enough for one person to kneel on, could be carried to and from the mosque or laid down wherever the person was, making it easier to kneel in worship. Prayer rugs often had a mihrab (niche in a mosque indicating the direction of Mecca) woven into them, with a rectangle above that the worshipper could touch his forehead to. Other decorations might include items commonly found in the mosque, such as hanging lanterns, archways, and verses from the Quran. Painted and decorated tiles, an art borrowed from the Byzantine Empire, were popular and often graced floors and walls. Decorated tiles were especially popular with the Seljuk Turks. They were used to cover walls, ceilings, and floors in mosques, bath houses, private homes, and royal palaces. During the later Abbasid dynasty, the diwan, a sofa that stretched along three sides of the room, became popular. Today, another word for sofa is divan, which specifically means a long, backless sofa with pillows, set against a wall.
Style
The early Bedouin people wore simple clothes designed to protect themselves from the scorching rays of the desert sun. Their clothing consisted of a long shirt with a sash (sash is an Arabic word) and a flowing upper garment. As the empire expanded, the basic style of clothing remained the same, with some refinements. Women and men alike continued to wear long shirts that covered the upper part of the body. Beneath this tunic they wore loose pants. Women covered their heads with long, flowing scarves and veils, while men often wore cloaks around their shoulders. These cloaks were multi-functional, serving as a rain or sun shield, a blanket, or a sack to carry goods. Muslim men, like women, also covered their heads. Many used pieces of cloth that could be wrapped around the head in many different ways, similar to today’s turban. The courtiers of the Abbasid dynasty introduced many new styles to the empire. During warmer weather, silk gowns became the fashion. In colder weather, quilted clothing was popular. Muslim men at court often dyed their beards with henna to redden them. This was a custom that dated back to the time of Muhammad. They also trimmed their hair short to reveal their necks and ears. Cosmetics were used in the court of the Abbasid caliphs. Women used black kohl under their eyes to accentuate the size of their eyes. They also dyed their fingertips with henna to redden them. Perfumes were popular too, for men and women. Men, for example, sometimes scented their beards before dining. Rosewater was a favorite scent. The Abbasid caliphs’ wives often set fashion trends that were followed by Muslim women. One wife decorated her shoes with gemstones—a fashion that has endured to this day. Another, to cover a blemish on her forehead, designed a jeweled, lacy veil that quickly became the latest rage among Baghdad women. Abbasid women also wore anklets, bracelets, and other pieces of jewelry. Cleanliness was extremely important to the people of the Islamic Empire. While people in Europe believed that bathing was dangerous and unhealthy, the people of the empire believed in rubbing the body with pleasant-smelling lotions, cleaning the teeth with a stick and paste, and using perfumes to mask foul body and other odors. Public baths were particularly popular, especially during the Abbasid dynasty. Baghdad alone had thousands of them. The baths had hot and cold running water. The hot water was heated by huge fireplaces. Bathers used ground ashes as soap. The public baths provided social opportunities, giving men the chance to relax with other men. They also gave women one of their rare opportunities to get out of the house and socialize with other women.
Women and Family Life
Throughout the Islamic Empire, marriage was considered a sacred institution and, for men, a duty. Men usually married for the first time around the age of 20, while women were sometimes as young as 12. Families generally arranged the marriages, with the husband’s family giving the bride a dowry (property or money brought by a bride or groom to their marriage), which was hers to keep. According to the Quran, men were allowed to have up to four wives, while women could have just one husband. However, the husband had to treat each wife equally and be able to take care of all of his wives financially. This meant providing each wife with her own cooking and sleeping areas, and her own slaves. Most Muslim men had just one wife at a time. After the death of Khadija, Muhammad himself practiced polygamy—having more than one wife. He was allowed as many wives as he liked, and at one time had nine wives. Although he married most of his wives for political reasons, he also married for love. Muhammad was the first Muslim to create a harem, or restricted place, for his wives. The wives were separated from other people so that they could not be held to blame for any behavior that might be considered improper. Each wife lived in her own small apartment. When male visitors came to the house, a curtain called the hijab was put up to prevent them from seeing Muhammad’s wives. But the hijab gradually came to mean more than a curtain. Eventually it became the custom of Musllim women wearing a veil, head covering, and modest dress in public, including covering their arms and legs. Hijab, meaning modest attire, is still worn by many Muslim women today. The word hijab also refers to the veil and head covering itself. The Quran made other important changes in the life of Arab women. They could now keep their dowries even if their husband divorced them. The Quran also stipulated that a man must treat his wife kindly. Islamic law also allowed women to inherit and own property, separate from male family members. The first duty of women throughout the empire was to care for the home and their families. At home, some women had their own small businesses, especially spinning or dyeing cloth. Because they were supposed to stay at home and could not bring their goods to the marketplace, they had to hire men to sell their goods on their behalf. Poorer women probably had more freedom of movement, because wealthier Arab men tended to keep their wives home and out of sight. These wealthy women had slaves who took care of their household chores for them, but the poor did not have this luxury. Wealthier women seem to have been covered up more in their clothing than the poor, as well. However, as has been the case throughout history, the financial resources of wealthier women certainly gave them more options. They could have servants, could give away property, and had more private space. In some cases, they were able to attend school and take up a profession. Some wealthy Muslim women, for example, practiced medicine and operated as merchants. Men were under no restrictions to remain at home. For entertainment, they could go to the public baths, play chess with their friends, or hang out at the local tavern. Although alcohol was forbidden, taverns served a fermented liquid called nabidh, made from raisins or dates. At the tavern, the men might be entertained by music or poetry recitations. However, at home there were restrictions on with whom men could socialize (particularly in the homes of non-relatives). Women usually had more freedom than men to socialize in private homes. For children, education began at home. From an early age, children were taught to memorize passages from the Quran. As they grew older, the Quran and the Hadith were used to teach them to read. Later, boys would receive more formal lessons at mosques, schools, or Islamic centers. During the Abbasid dynasty, boys usually began attending mosque schools at around the age of seven—as long as their families could afford to pay a small tuition. Wealthier boys continued their education longer. They might attend seminars, discuss poetry, and read classic works of Greek that had been translated into Arabic. These lessons prepared the wealthy young men for positions of importance. The empire’s first universities were founded in the 10th century under the Abbasid dynasty. Two Abbasid caliphs, al-Mahdi and al-Hadi, were responsible for the construction of a large number of libraries and centers of education in Baghdad. Scientists and scholars from all over the empire went to the capital to teach and learn in the universities (also known as “houses of knowledge”) and madrasas (Islamic schools).
It is Good to be the Caliph
The ruling dynasty—especially the Abbasids—lived a much different life than did the average Muslim in the Islamic Empire. As the Abbasid caliphs passed their control over the government to others, they turned to a life of rituals, pleasure, and entertainment. The caliph was almost constantly surrounded by courtiers. Those who wished to meet with the caliph had to kneel down in front of the ruler and kiss the floor. During the early Abbasid dynasty, a leather carpet was kept unrolled before the caliph’s throne. If need be, the royal executioner could step up, chop off the head of anyone who displeased the caliph, then take the dead body away without making a mess. The executioner was always ready, with his sword drawn, to obey the caliph’s signal. The Abbasids enjoyed many different types of entertainment. Musicians and poets were very popular at court, and the most talented ones often received regular payments from the caliph. Another popular pastime was hunting. The caliph rode on horseback, using dogs, falcons, ferrets, and even cheetahs to help him track wild game. As might be expected, dining was a grand experience at the palace. Under the caliph al-Mamun, diners were offered foods from far away that were shipped in lead boxes packed with snow to keep them fresh. Al-Mamun’s guests were also the first Arabs to dine using tables and chairs instead of sitting on the floor. The caliph’s tables were made of gold and silver. Harems became more common during the Abbasid dynasty. In addition to their four wives allowed by the Quran, caliphs kept hundreds—
sometimes thousands—of concubines. Concubines might be female slaves or prisoners of war who caught the caliph’s eye. Eunuchs (castrated slaves) were often employed to guard the women.
Holidays
Throughout the empire, Muslims observed several religious and nonreligious celebrations. The most important religious holiday throughout the kingdom was Eid al-Adha (the
feast of sacrifice). The holiday marked the end of the sacred pilgrimage to Mecca. On the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijja (the final month of the Islamic calendar), an animal was sacrificed and prayers were offered. During the rest of the fourday holiday, Muslims feasted and visited family. Another major religious holiday, Eid al-Fitr (the feast of breaking fast), marked the end of the fast of Ramadan. (A fast is a period in which one does not eat.) Under the Abbasid dynasty, long processions were organized, followed by a huge feast that might last up to three days. At the feast, diners ate such specially-prepared dishes as thin pancakes, breads, and dried fruits. On the streets of Baghdad, subjects were entertained by musicians and poets. One secular (nonreligious) holiday enjoyed by the Fatimids in North Africa was Nawruz, a festival that had its roots in ancient Iran. During Nawruz, some Muslims celebrated the return of spring. The celebration included dancing, bonfires, and giving gifts to friends and family. It was also customary to give a gift to the caliph. However, some religious scholars felt that good Muslims should not celebrate this holiday, because of its secular roots.
Death and Burial
The Quran offers Muslims hope of an afterlife. According to Islam, the soul, freed from the body, moves on to a new phase. Those who have lived a righteous life are rewarded with heaven, while those who have not are sent to hell. When a Muslim died, the body was first washed to purify it. Then it was wrapped in a seamless white cloth called a shroud. Cloth for funeral shrouds had been dipped into the waters of Mecca’s sacred Zamzam well during a pilgrimage. Throughout these preparations, passages from the Quran were recited over the body. Finally, the body was buried on its side, facing Mecca. Martyrs—those who had died advancing the cause of Islam—were to be buried as they died, with no washing or other preparation. All Muslims had to be buried the morning after their death. During the burial, women—sometimes paid professional mourners—cried out in grief for the dead person. Mourners wore bands of cloth around their head as a symbol of their grief. Because Muhammad opposed fancy memorials to the dead, most Muslim graves were simple and plain. People were often buried without a coffin. However, wealthy Muslims were often buried in large, domed tombs. The last words spoken at the grave during burial were also the first words a Muslim heard as an infant: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is His Prophet.”
CONNECTIONS
“Moorish” Architecture
The influence of the islamic conquerors on architectural styles can still be seen today in areas that were once part of the islamic Empire, especially in southern Spain. What became known as “moorish” architecture made its way to the Americas with the earliest spanish explorers. These explorers built houses, missions, and other buildings that reminded them of their homes back in Spain. In the United states, the influence of Islamic architecture is especially strong in the southwest. here, moorish touches can be seen in buildings that were built hundreds of years ago, as well as those built more recently. These touches include horseshoe-shaped archways, red-tiled roofs, smooth stucco outer walls, ceramic tiles, heavy wooden doors, and courtyards with a central fountain surrounded by arcades. the so-called Mediterranean revival style of building that was popular in Florida in the early 1900s includes elements of Moorish, Spanish, Italian, Venetian, and other styles. today, home builders can choose a “spanish” type of home that incorporates some moorish features into its design.
An Islamic Cookbook
This is from a collection of recipes written down in the 13th century in Spain. At the time, southern Spain was part of the Islamic Empire. Ujja (Frittata) of Pigeons take two clean, active pigeons, and fry them in a pan with fresh oil; then place them in a pot and add to them some murri naqî, vinegar, oil, cilantro, Chinese cinnamon and thyme; when it is cooked, break eight eggs with it and pour out. It is finished. Murri naqî is spices mixed with honey, water, lemon, and bread and then cooked. It is one of a group of condiments that were popular in early Islamic cooking and that vanished some time after the 14th century. (Source: “An Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook of the 13th Century,” translated by Charles Perry. Recreational Medievalism.
Islamic Cuisine
Many people have heard the story that italian merchant Marco Polo (1254–1324) introduced pasta to Europe in 1298 after he returned from China. Several historians, however, believe that pasta was introduced into Italy centuries earlier—by muslim invaders in Sicily.The first pasta—balls and strings of dried flour—may have been invented by Arab conquerors in their search to find a food that could be easily transported from battle to battle. Another important food contribution was sugar cane. This popular sweetener first came to Europe from the islamic Empire, and it was one of the top commodities traded until the 18th century. With the introduction of sugar cane to Europe, sweets of all sorts quickly became popular. The words candy, caramel, marzipan, sherbet, sugar, and syrup are all Arabic in origin. Other culinary contributions that we still eat today include flat breads, which were popular and eaten with most meals. In the United states, these flat breads take the form of pita and wraps. Other Middle Eastern foods that made their way to Europe and other parts of the world include falafel (ground chickpeas and spices that are shaped into balls and fried) and hummus, a kind of dip also made with chickpeas and spices.
Dietary Restrictions
Muslims today must follow the same dietary laws that Muslims in the Islamic Empire followed. One such law forbids Muslims the eating of pork. in addition, all meat must be slaughtered following specific rituals passed down through the centuries. This type of meat is called Halal, which means “allowed” or “permitted” in Arabic. Most large U.S. cities today have halal butchers where Muslims can buy meat that has been prepared properly
and has not come into contact with non-Halal meat.
The Mattress Comes to Europe
One of the new ideas brought back to Europe by Crusaders was the mattress. The Crusaders borrowed the Arabic practice of sleeping on pillows, cushions, and rugs thrown upon the floor. Before that, the common people in Europe slept on piles of straw, tree boughs, or similar material heaped in a corner of their house. The word mattress comes from
the Arabic word matrah, which means a place where something is thrown.
Keeping Clean in the Islamic Empire
For the Arab people, personal cleanliness was always important. During the height of the Islamic Empire, the Arabs were the first to use hard soap made out of olive oil, alkali, and natron, a type of salt. Under Muslim control, Italy and spain became soap-making centers. from here, soap was exported to other parts of Europe. Muslims in Spain and Italy also helped popularize the connection between cleanliness and health. Muslim doctors put forth many theories about the role that poor hygiene played in sickness and the spread of disease. Hammamat, or bathhouses, were believed to play a key role in preventing contagious diseases from spreading. They were even known as “silent doctors.” Inspectors carefully examined each hammam to make sure it was kept clean. today, hammamat are still found throughout the middle East. Many are attached to mosques. The Muslims also popularized dental hygiene. Although they did not invent the toothbrush or toothpaste, Muslim doctors helped advance knowledge of the mouth and teeth, and the need to keep them clean.
The Clever Courtier
How could a courtier stay out of trouble? According to vizier Nizam al-Mulk (d. 1092), the perfect courtier should always agree with everything the caliph had to say and: Should be essentially honorable and of excellent character, of cheerful disposition and irreproachable in respect of his religion, discreet and a clean liver. He should be able to tell a story and repeat a narrative either humorous or grave, and he should remember news. He should also be consistently a carrier of pleasant tidings and the announcer of felicitous [fortunate] happenings. He should also have acquaintance of backgammon and chess, and if he can play a musical instrument and can handle a weapon, it is all the better.
(Source: Nizam al-Mulk. “On the Courtiers and Familiars of Kings,” from Treatise on the Art of Government, translated by Reuben Levy, M.A., 1929. Medieval Sourcebook.
Salukis: The Dogs of Caliphs
The saluki is one of the oldest-known breeds of domesticated dogs. Thousands of years ago, Bedouin tribes used the sharp-eyed and lightning-fast salukis, also known as gazelle hounds, to hunt gazelle and other animals. The dogs were so highly prized that they were even allowed to sleep in the tents of their masters. In ancient Egypt, the dogs were kept by pharaohs and became known as the “royal dogs of Egypt.” Only royalty were allowed to keep these animals, and a favorite dog might be mummified and placed in his master’s tomb. After the rise of the Islamic Empire, the dogs became popular as the pets of the caliphs. They accompanied the caliph on hunting expeditions, and were often given to friends and important people as signs of royal favor and esteem. Salukis are sleek, silky animals that hunt by sight and are part of a group of dogs known as sighthounds. Like Greyhounds, they are swift and intelligent animals. In some countries, salukis are raced against one another.
Fun and Games
Chess was the caliph’s game of choice. He even held chess championships at the palace. While this game of strategy had come to persia from India, it was introduced to Europe by the Muslims. The term checkmate, which in chess means one player has cornered the other’s king, comes from the Arabic phrase shah mat, which means “the king is dead.”
other games borrowed from the persians and popularized by the Muslims include polo and backgammon—both of which are still played today.
The Zamzam Well
The Zamzam well is located in Mecca, a few yards east of the Kaaba. It is 115 feet deep and is topped by an elegant dome. Muslims believe that allah created the well to provide for hagar, a wife of the Biblical figure Abraham (the Judeo-Christian Bible says hagar was a servant in Abraham’s household), who was the mother of Ishmael. When Hagar was forced to leave Abraham’s household, she and her baby son wandered in the desert and eventually were overcome with thirst. In her desperate search for water, Hagar ran seven times back and forth between the two hills of Safa and Marwa. Then, in despair, she sat down and waited to die. Allah saw her effort and miraculously blessed the spot with a spring. Muslims on the hajj pilgrimage recall this event by circling the same hills seven times, and by drinking the water of the Zamzam well. It is said to be able to satisfy both thirst and hunger. Pilgrims to Mecca collect the water in bottles to bring home to relatives and friends who are ill, because it is also said to have healing powers.
* In the book 'Empire of the Islamic World' (Great Empires of the Past), Chelsea House Publishers- New York, 2010 p. 73-93 Adapted by Leopoldo Costa.
Kufa
The first garrison town was Kufa, in southern Iraq. It was built in 638 by General Saad, who served under Umar. Saad chose the site because it had excellent grazing lands. Here, the soldiers’ camels, horses, and sheep would be well fed. The town was built out of baked bricks and marble columns that were taken from nearby ruins. Saad’s home and the mosque were in the center. Saad himself served as Kufa’s governor. In Kufa, the soldiers lived in areas of the city that were segregated by tribal associations. Within a tribal district, one clan (a group of close-knit families) might all live on one specific street. As the garrison city grew, each tribal district built its own mosques and created its own associations.
As wives and children joined the soldiers, Kufa’s population skyrocketed. Just a few years after its founding, it was home to more than 40,000 people. To support this growing population, merchants soon flocked to Kufa. They expanded the city, building out from the center of the town. Over the years, Kufa developed into one of the most important cities in the empire. It became a Shiite political center, as well as a center for learning.
Basra
Another early garrison town in southern Iraq was Basra, founded by Umar in 635. In 665, the caliph Muawiya appointed his half-brother Ziyad commander of Basra. Ziyad was a strict disciplinarian and ruled the town with an iron fist. He was also a brilliant administrator, implementing a registry department in Basra for official documents. Under Ziyad’s command, all official documents were sealed with wax, then marked with the governor’s own peacock stamp. Ziyad even persuaded Muawiya to follow his example, marking the first time government documents were formally registered in the Islamic Empire.
Baghdad
Baghdad, the most glorious city built by the Muslims during the Islamic Empire, was not founded as a garrison town. In 762, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur decided he needed a new
capital for himself and his descendants. Al-Mansur wanted the new city in Iraq to serve as a symbol of the Abbasids’ political, commercial, and cultural superiority. The new capital was built on the site of an ancient Persian village that had also been named Baghdad. Mansur called his capital Madinat al-Salam, which means “City of Peace,” but people continued to call it by its old name. Baghdad was located on the west bank of the Tigris River, 20 miles northeast of the former Persian capital, Ctesiphon. The site was wisely chosen. Because of its location between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers, Baghdad was surrounded by fertile land. Additionally, the city could easily be defended. Enemy troops could attack only by ship or by crossing a heavily-guarded bridge into the city. The most skilled builders and designers from around the empire were brought to Baghdad to work on the royal complex. About 100,000 men worked four years to complete the Abbasid city. Baghdad originally was known as the Round City. It was built in a circular plan and measured nearly 2 miles across. The city was made up of three circles set inside one another, each one surrounded by a wall. The caliph’s palace and the mosque were built in the innermost circle. In the middle circle lived courtiers, army officers, and other important people. The third circle was occupied by the rest of the people. The outermost wall was a strong one, with four gates leading to the four different points of the empire. Each gate was defended by a company of 1,000 soldiers. Merchants and businessmen set up their shops outside the outermost wall. The city continued to grow and spread. By the early 800s, Baghdad was the largest city in the Middle East. At its height, more than 1 million people made their homes there. During the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid (r. 786–809), Baghdad expanded to the east side of the Tigris River, and this area soon became the heart of the city. At its best, the city was the most cultured, beautiful, and busy metropolitan area in the world. It contained breathtaking mosques, palaces, and gardens. Like other cities throughout the empire, Baghdad was home to libraries, colleges, and hospitals. The busy boat traffic on the Tigris made it an avenue of trade. Gondolas (small, flat-bottomed boats) sailed up and down, filled with goods and people. Because it was located in the heart of the former Sassanian Empire, Baghdad’s residents and visitors could not help but be influenced by Persian culture. As a result, a Persian influence began to spread throughout the empire. In addition to the Persian influence, the city enjoyed a truly international atmosphere. As capital of the huge Islamic Empire, Baghdad attracted people from all over the world to study and do business. Scholars, poets, scientists, and other learned people came to visit and study at the libraries, mosques, and schools. Caliph Harun al-Rashid had a library with close to 600,000 books. Baghdad continued to be one of the most cultured and beautiful cities in the world until 1258, when it was destroyed and looted by the Mongols. The destruction marked the end of the Islamic Empire.
Cairo
Another center of Islamic culture was Cairo in Egypt. Cairo, located on the banks of the Nile River, was founded in 969 by the Fatimids. It served as a center of government, culture, and commerce throughout the Fatimid dynasty. From Cairo, the Fatimids took control of the gold mines of Nubia, along the upper Nile. With Nubian gold, the Fatimids controlled one of the richest regions in the empire. The gold enabled them to pay huge armies, buy supplies, and send out missionaries to convert people to Islam. The Nile River was the center of life in Cairo, and was treated with reverence and care. It was important to maintaining the waterways and irrigation canals that watered the area’s crops, and the caliph appointed several officials to make sure these things were done. The Nile also served as the means for transporting goods, people, and communications to other points in the Islamic Empire. The river made Cairo a center of the trade between the Mediterranean region and India. Close to Cairo was its twin city, Fustat, a garrison town founded around 641 by Muslims. Fustat was another important and thriving Egyptian town. The two cities eventually merged.
Cordoba
Cordoba in southern Spain has a long history of being influenced by conquerors. The city was founded around the first century b.c.e. by the Romans. In 572, it was taken from the Romans by the Visigoths, a Germanic tribe. The Muslims took it from the Visigoths in 711. In 756, Abdal-Rahman, the Umayyad prince who had escaped being slaughtered by the Abbasids, took control of Cordoba. As the capital of the Umayyad emirs in Spain, Cordoba became the jewel of Europe. It was also a center of trade and industry in the area, and the city grew rich and prospered. It was famous for the production of silk and paper. Cordoban craftsmen were especially admired for a deep red decorated leather that they produced. It came to be known—and is still known today—as cordovan. Cordoba was also a center of learning and culture, not only for the Muslim world but for Europe as well. From Cordoba and other cities in Spain, poetry, science, philosophy, and medical knowledge was absorbed from the Eastern Islamic Empire and spread into Europe. Scholars in Cordoba directly influenced European scholars, including such writers as Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) and Dante Alighieri (1265–1321). By the early 900s, Cordoba was the largest city on the Iberian Peninsula, with as many as 500,000 people living there. Even Muslims from other parts of the empire believed Cordoba was one of the most beautiful cities in the Muslim world. Many who visited the city chose to move and make their homes there. Cordoba remained under Muslim control until 1236, when it was conquered by Ferdinand of Castile (1199–1252), the king of Spain.
Trade and Industry
From the earliest days of the empire, trade was the most important industry. Early Muslim merchants were responsible for the wealth and prosperity of the empire. They also helped spread Islam, Arabic, and Arabian-Islamic culture. Kharijite merchants in North Africa, for
example, helped spread their particular brand of Islam to the people there. As a result, the Kharijites are strongest in this area today. At first, trade throughout the empire was primarily over land. Caravans of camels loaded with goods from India, Southeast Asia, and China trekked across the desert. They carried such items as grain, silk, cloth, wines, dried fruits, ivory, wood, perfume, and precious gems and metals. Trade with Africa for gold and slaves was also an important part of the merchant industry. Western Europe was of little importance as a trading partner. According to historian Bernard Lewis in The Muslim Discovery of Europe, exports from Europe were “too few and too insignificant” to deserve mention during the empire’s earliest days. The caravans traveled slowly, usually at about 3 miles an hour. At various points along the route, they could stop at a caravanserai, a sort of crude motel. Here, the caravan leader would find a room for himself and a place for his camels to rest, eat, and drink. Caravans faced many obstacles. Perhaps the most serious was the hot, dry desert. Bandits were also common along some caravan routes. But merchants were quite willing to face the risks because of the huge profits involved. The wealthiest people in the early Islamic Empire were those who had successful trading businesses. As the empire expanded, the demand for exotic goods from remote corners of the empire also grew. In addition, people in large cities such as Baghdad required constant supplies of food and other trade items. With so much demand, land trade was soon supplemented with trade by ship. Merchant ships traveled from port to port, transporting goods more efficiently and easily throughout the huge area of the Muslim Empire. Muslim traders may have operated as far north as the Baltic region and northern Europe. The Islamic Empire had many important port cities. One key port was Siraf, located on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf. Foods from Oman and goods from Africa, India, and other areas arrived by dhows, small boats with triangular sails, called lateen sails. The goods were then transported by camel caravans to other parts of the empire. During the Abbasid dynasty, Baghdad quickly became the most important trading city. Goods from all over the empire were shipped up the Tigris River. At the markets of Baghdad, people could buy exotic foods and unusual trinkets. Here they might find porcelain, silk, and paper from China; gemstones from central Asia; and furs from Scandinavia. Baghdad was also an export center, with the empire’s goods shipped out to lands far and wide. As trade developed, there was a need for a standard system of money and common banking practices. During the Abbasid dynasty, two types of currency were used: In the eastern part of the empire, the Persian silver dirham was the standard unit of money. The Byzantine gold denarius
was used in the west. The values of these two currencies went up and down relative to one another, just as the value of currency does today. To handle currency exchanges, money changers became common in markets across the empire. As the money changer began lending funds and offering credit, his role developed into that of a banker. Because the Quran forbids Muslims from lending money with interest, early bankers in the empire were usually Jewish or Christian. Often they operated with Muslim merchants as partners.
Textile production was a major Islamic industry. Cities around the empire produced cloth made of silk, linen, cotton, flax, and wool. One special type of textile made in the empire was tiraz, which was cotton or linen cloth embroidered with passages from the Quran. The cloth was made in special workshops, also called tiraz, which were controlled by the caliph. Every piece made included the name and location of the workshop, the date, and the name of the current caliph. Conquests and border wars made the business of war a profitable one. Cordoba, for example, was home to workshops that manufactured thousands of tents, shields, bows, and arrows each year to supply the Islamic armies. Horses and camels to carry soldier’s goods were also bred and sold. Craftsmen throughout the empire shared their skills with one another, and the technology of one area soon spread to another. Artisans from Baghdad, for example, went to Spain and North Africa to
share their metal working techniques. From there, such skills as metalworking, weaving, and leather tanning were eventually transmitted throughout Europe.
Food in the Empire
From the eighth century to the 13th century, most subjects of the Islamic Empire enjoyed a good life, thanks to the wealth of the vast empire. Although early Arabs, particularly Bedouin tribes, generally lived on dates, milk, and the occasional bit of meat, this was no longer the case as the Muslims conquered new lands. As the empire expanded, Muslims were exposed to many exotic foods and their diets became quite varied. Cookbooks from the Islamic Empire still survive today, giving historians a glimpse into what its subjects ate. The first cookbook written in Arabic was compiled by Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi (779–839), uncle of the caliph al-Mamun (r. 813–833). The book contained recipes for many gourmet dishes that were served to the caliph and the rest of the court. These include a pureed eggplant and walnut dish and baked hen served on top of flatbread. Muslims could buy all kinds of foods at the local outdoor market. One type of shop, called a harras, sold ground meat that was combined with wheat and then fried. Other shops sold sauces, relishes, breads, and desserts. Eggplant was probably the most common vegetable. It was used in a variety of dishes and could be prepared in many different ways. Lentils were also popular. However, only the wealthiest subjects ate meats such as lamb, chicken, or veal. Pork was not eaten, because Muslim dietary law forbids it. Spices were an important part of the preparation of any meal. Popular cooking spices included cardamom, ginger, turmeric, and coriander. These spices gave Middle Eastern cuisine the distinct flavor it retains to this day. The Arabs introduced these spices to Europe. Water was the drink of choice. Because of their desert history, many Muslims considered water to be a source of life and purification. To give a person water, according to Muhammad, was an act that deserved the highest praise. The Muslims did enjoy other drinks, though. One was sekanjabin, which was water flavored with mint syrup. Water was also flavored with lemons, violets, roses, bananas, and many other sweet substances. Drinking alcoholic beverages was forbidden. Despite the variety of foods available, dates retained their popularity and importance. These sweet, fleshy fruits from the date palm tree were served fresh or used to make other desserts. Dates were even used to make a type of alcoholic beverage called khamr, which was popular despite the Islamic prohibition on drinking alcohol. Before a meal was served, it was important for all guests to wash their hands. A pitcher of water and a basin were always located near the table for this purpose. During the Abbasid dynasty, food was brought out on big brass trays and set on a low table. Diners used their thumb and the first two fingers of their right hand to eat. It was considered bad manners to lick one’s fingers.
Homes and What Was in Them
The expansion of the empire brought a change of lifestyle for many Arabs. Although many Bedouins chose to continue living their nomadic desert lifestyle, others built permanent homes in the newly-conquered lands. For the wealthy, the home consisted of a large single building with a central open courtyard. The courtyard often had a fountain or a garden in the center. In many cases, extended families lived together in these big houses, with different branches of the family living in separate apartments. Inside, the apartments contained little furniture. Ornate rugs or cushions were thrown over small square mattresses for the family to sit on. Floor coverings were important to Muslims. Rugs were both practical and decorative. They served as places for prayer, rest, eating, and entertaining. In mosques, at home, or as decorations for a royal palace, carpets were highly prized. The caliph Harun al-Rashid had 22,000 rugs in his palace. Even before Islam, carpets were important and multi-functional belongings. They were used not only as cushions, blankets, and pillows when a nomad was at home in his tent, but were also useful during travel. Rugs could be thrown across the back of a camel or horse like a saddle, or used as sacks to carry possessions. Some rugs were huge works of art that took months, even years, to create. They might include distinctive ornamental patterns such as outlines of flowers, leaves, fruit or geometric patterns (collectively known today as arabesque, which means “in the manner of Arabs”). These pictures were created by the careful placement and tying of thousands of knots. Pictures of gardens were also popular. Particularly spectacular rugs might also be hung on the walls. Rugs were made of every fiber from wool to silk. Some were even woven with silver and gold thread and studded with gemstones. One common use for rugs was in prayer. Prayer rugs, large enough for one person to kneel on, could be carried to and from the mosque or laid down wherever the person was, making it easier to kneel in worship. Prayer rugs often had a mihrab (niche in a mosque indicating the direction of Mecca) woven into them, with a rectangle above that the worshipper could touch his forehead to. Other decorations might include items commonly found in the mosque, such as hanging lanterns, archways, and verses from the Quran. Painted and decorated tiles, an art borrowed from the Byzantine Empire, were popular and often graced floors and walls. Decorated tiles were especially popular with the Seljuk Turks. They were used to cover walls, ceilings, and floors in mosques, bath houses, private homes, and royal palaces. During the later Abbasid dynasty, the diwan, a sofa that stretched along three sides of the room, became popular. Today, another word for sofa is divan, which specifically means a long, backless sofa with pillows, set against a wall.
Style
The early Bedouin people wore simple clothes designed to protect themselves from the scorching rays of the desert sun. Their clothing consisted of a long shirt with a sash (sash is an Arabic word) and a flowing upper garment. As the empire expanded, the basic style of clothing remained the same, with some refinements. Women and men alike continued to wear long shirts that covered the upper part of the body. Beneath this tunic they wore loose pants. Women covered their heads with long, flowing scarves and veils, while men often wore cloaks around their shoulders. These cloaks were multi-functional, serving as a rain or sun shield, a blanket, or a sack to carry goods. Muslim men, like women, also covered their heads. Many used pieces of cloth that could be wrapped around the head in many different ways, similar to today’s turban. The courtiers of the Abbasid dynasty introduced many new styles to the empire. During warmer weather, silk gowns became the fashion. In colder weather, quilted clothing was popular. Muslim men at court often dyed their beards with henna to redden them. This was a custom that dated back to the time of Muhammad. They also trimmed their hair short to reveal their necks and ears. Cosmetics were used in the court of the Abbasid caliphs. Women used black kohl under their eyes to accentuate the size of their eyes. They also dyed their fingertips with henna to redden them. Perfumes were popular too, for men and women. Men, for example, sometimes scented their beards before dining. Rosewater was a favorite scent. The Abbasid caliphs’ wives often set fashion trends that were followed by Muslim women. One wife decorated her shoes with gemstones—a fashion that has endured to this day. Another, to cover a blemish on her forehead, designed a jeweled, lacy veil that quickly became the latest rage among Baghdad women. Abbasid women also wore anklets, bracelets, and other pieces of jewelry. Cleanliness was extremely important to the people of the Islamic Empire. While people in Europe believed that bathing was dangerous and unhealthy, the people of the empire believed in rubbing the body with pleasant-smelling lotions, cleaning the teeth with a stick and paste, and using perfumes to mask foul body and other odors. Public baths were particularly popular, especially during the Abbasid dynasty. Baghdad alone had thousands of them. The baths had hot and cold running water. The hot water was heated by huge fireplaces. Bathers used ground ashes as soap. The public baths provided social opportunities, giving men the chance to relax with other men. They also gave women one of their rare opportunities to get out of the house and socialize with other women.
Women and Family Life
Throughout the Islamic Empire, marriage was considered a sacred institution and, for men, a duty. Men usually married for the first time around the age of 20, while women were sometimes as young as 12. Families generally arranged the marriages, with the husband’s family giving the bride a dowry (property or money brought by a bride or groom to their marriage), which was hers to keep. According to the Quran, men were allowed to have up to four wives, while women could have just one husband. However, the husband had to treat each wife equally and be able to take care of all of his wives financially. This meant providing each wife with her own cooking and sleeping areas, and her own slaves. Most Muslim men had just one wife at a time. After the death of Khadija, Muhammad himself practiced polygamy—having more than one wife. He was allowed as many wives as he liked, and at one time had nine wives. Although he married most of his wives for political reasons, he also married for love. Muhammad was the first Muslim to create a harem, or restricted place, for his wives. The wives were separated from other people so that they could not be held to blame for any behavior that might be considered improper. Each wife lived in her own small apartment. When male visitors came to the house, a curtain called the hijab was put up to prevent them from seeing Muhammad’s wives. But the hijab gradually came to mean more than a curtain. Eventually it became the custom of Musllim women wearing a veil, head covering, and modest dress in public, including covering their arms and legs. Hijab, meaning modest attire, is still worn by many Muslim women today. The word hijab also refers to the veil and head covering itself. The Quran made other important changes in the life of Arab women. They could now keep their dowries even if their husband divorced them. The Quran also stipulated that a man must treat his wife kindly. Islamic law also allowed women to inherit and own property, separate from male family members. The first duty of women throughout the empire was to care for the home and their families. At home, some women had their own small businesses, especially spinning or dyeing cloth. Because they were supposed to stay at home and could not bring their goods to the marketplace, they had to hire men to sell their goods on their behalf. Poorer women probably had more freedom of movement, because wealthier Arab men tended to keep their wives home and out of sight. These wealthy women had slaves who took care of their household chores for them, but the poor did not have this luxury. Wealthier women seem to have been covered up more in their clothing than the poor, as well. However, as has been the case throughout history, the financial resources of wealthier women certainly gave them more options. They could have servants, could give away property, and had more private space. In some cases, they were able to attend school and take up a profession. Some wealthy Muslim women, for example, practiced medicine and operated as merchants. Men were under no restrictions to remain at home. For entertainment, they could go to the public baths, play chess with their friends, or hang out at the local tavern. Although alcohol was forbidden, taverns served a fermented liquid called nabidh, made from raisins or dates. At the tavern, the men might be entertained by music or poetry recitations. However, at home there were restrictions on with whom men could socialize (particularly in the homes of non-relatives). Women usually had more freedom than men to socialize in private homes. For children, education began at home. From an early age, children were taught to memorize passages from the Quran. As they grew older, the Quran and the Hadith were used to teach them to read. Later, boys would receive more formal lessons at mosques, schools, or Islamic centers. During the Abbasid dynasty, boys usually began attending mosque schools at around the age of seven—as long as their families could afford to pay a small tuition. Wealthier boys continued their education longer. They might attend seminars, discuss poetry, and read classic works of Greek that had been translated into Arabic. These lessons prepared the wealthy young men for positions of importance. The empire’s first universities were founded in the 10th century under the Abbasid dynasty. Two Abbasid caliphs, al-Mahdi and al-Hadi, were responsible for the construction of a large number of libraries and centers of education in Baghdad. Scientists and scholars from all over the empire went to the capital to teach and learn in the universities (also known as “houses of knowledge”) and madrasas (Islamic schools).
It is Good to be the Caliph
The ruling dynasty—especially the Abbasids—lived a much different life than did the average Muslim in the Islamic Empire. As the Abbasid caliphs passed their control over the government to others, they turned to a life of rituals, pleasure, and entertainment. The caliph was almost constantly surrounded by courtiers. Those who wished to meet with the caliph had to kneel down in front of the ruler and kiss the floor. During the early Abbasid dynasty, a leather carpet was kept unrolled before the caliph’s throne. If need be, the royal executioner could step up, chop off the head of anyone who displeased the caliph, then take the dead body away without making a mess. The executioner was always ready, with his sword drawn, to obey the caliph’s signal. The Abbasids enjoyed many different types of entertainment. Musicians and poets were very popular at court, and the most talented ones often received regular payments from the caliph. Another popular pastime was hunting. The caliph rode on horseback, using dogs, falcons, ferrets, and even cheetahs to help him track wild game. As might be expected, dining was a grand experience at the palace. Under the caliph al-Mamun, diners were offered foods from far away that were shipped in lead boxes packed with snow to keep them fresh. Al-Mamun’s guests were also the first Arabs to dine using tables and chairs instead of sitting on the floor. The caliph’s tables were made of gold and silver. Harems became more common during the Abbasid dynasty. In addition to their four wives allowed by the Quran, caliphs kept hundreds—
sometimes thousands—of concubines. Concubines might be female slaves or prisoners of war who caught the caliph’s eye. Eunuchs (castrated slaves) were often employed to guard the women.
Holidays
Throughout the empire, Muslims observed several religious and nonreligious celebrations. The most important religious holiday throughout the kingdom was Eid al-Adha (the
feast of sacrifice). The holiday marked the end of the sacred pilgrimage to Mecca. On the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijja (the final month of the Islamic calendar), an animal was sacrificed and prayers were offered. During the rest of the fourday holiday, Muslims feasted and visited family. Another major religious holiday, Eid al-Fitr (the feast of breaking fast), marked the end of the fast of Ramadan. (A fast is a period in which one does not eat.) Under the Abbasid dynasty, long processions were organized, followed by a huge feast that might last up to three days. At the feast, diners ate such specially-prepared dishes as thin pancakes, breads, and dried fruits. On the streets of Baghdad, subjects were entertained by musicians and poets. One secular (nonreligious) holiday enjoyed by the Fatimids in North Africa was Nawruz, a festival that had its roots in ancient Iran. During Nawruz, some Muslims celebrated the return of spring. The celebration included dancing, bonfires, and giving gifts to friends and family. It was also customary to give a gift to the caliph. However, some religious scholars felt that good Muslims should not celebrate this holiday, because of its secular roots.
Death and Burial
The Quran offers Muslims hope of an afterlife. According to Islam, the soul, freed from the body, moves on to a new phase. Those who have lived a righteous life are rewarded with heaven, while those who have not are sent to hell. When a Muslim died, the body was first washed to purify it. Then it was wrapped in a seamless white cloth called a shroud. Cloth for funeral shrouds had been dipped into the waters of Mecca’s sacred Zamzam well during a pilgrimage. Throughout these preparations, passages from the Quran were recited over the body. Finally, the body was buried on its side, facing Mecca. Martyrs—those who had died advancing the cause of Islam—were to be buried as they died, with no washing or other preparation. All Muslims had to be buried the morning after their death. During the burial, women—sometimes paid professional mourners—cried out in grief for the dead person. Mourners wore bands of cloth around their head as a symbol of their grief. Because Muhammad opposed fancy memorials to the dead, most Muslim graves were simple and plain. People were often buried without a coffin. However, wealthy Muslims were often buried in large, domed tombs. The last words spoken at the grave during burial were also the first words a Muslim heard as an infant: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is His Prophet.”
CONNECTIONS
“Moorish” Architecture
The influence of the islamic conquerors on architectural styles can still be seen today in areas that were once part of the islamic Empire, especially in southern Spain. What became known as “moorish” architecture made its way to the Americas with the earliest spanish explorers. These explorers built houses, missions, and other buildings that reminded them of their homes back in Spain. In the United states, the influence of Islamic architecture is especially strong in the southwest. here, moorish touches can be seen in buildings that were built hundreds of years ago, as well as those built more recently. These touches include horseshoe-shaped archways, red-tiled roofs, smooth stucco outer walls, ceramic tiles, heavy wooden doors, and courtyards with a central fountain surrounded by arcades. the so-called Mediterranean revival style of building that was popular in Florida in the early 1900s includes elements of Moorish, Spanish, Italian, Venetian, and other styles. today, home builders can choose a “spanish” type of home that incorporates some moorish features into its design.
An Islamic Cookbook
This is from a collection of recipes written down in the 13th century in Spain. At the time, southern Spain was part of the Islamic Empire. Ujja (Frittata) of Pigeons take two clean, active pigeons, and fry them in a pan with fresh oil; then place them in a pot and add to them some murri naqî, vinegar, oil, cilantro, Chinese cinnamon and thyme; when it is cooked, break eight eggs with it and pour out. It is finished. Murri naqî is spices mixed with honey, water, lemon, and bread and then cooked. It is one of a group of condiments that were popular in early Islamic cooking and that vanished some time after the 14th century. (Source: “An Anonymous Andalusian Cookbook of the 13th Century,” translated by Charles Perry. Recreational Medievalism.
Islamic Cuisine
Many people have heard the story that italian merchant Marco Polo (1254–1324) introduced pasta to Europe in 1298 after he returned from China. Several historians, however, believe that pasta was introduced into Italy centuries earlier—by muslim invaders in Sicily.The first pasta—balls and strings of dried flour—may have been invented by Arab conquerors in their search to find a food that could be easily transported from battle to battle. Another important food contribution was sugar cane. This popular sweetener first came to Europe from the islamic Empire, and it was one of the top commodities traded until the 18th century. With the introduction of sugar cane to Europe, sweets of all sorts quickly became popular. The words candy, caramel, marzipan, sherbet, sugar, and syrup are all Arabic in origin. Other culinary contributions that we still eat today include flat breads, which were popular and eaten with most meals. In the United states, these flat breads take the form of pita and wraps. Other Middle Eastern foods that made their way to Europe and other parts of the world include falafel (ground chickpeas and spices that are shaped into balls and fried) and hummus, a kind of dip also made with chickpeas and spices.
Dietary Restrictions
Muslims today must follow the same dietary laws that Muslims in the Islamic Empire followed. One such law forbids Muslims the eating of pork. in addition, all meat must be slaughtered following specific rituals passed down through the centuries. This type of meat is called Halal, which means “allowed” or “permitted” in Arabic. Most large U.S. cities today have halal butchers where Muslims can buy meat that has been prepared properly
and has not come into contact with non-Halal meat.
The Mattress Comes to Europe
One of the new ideas brought back to Europe by Crusaders was the mattress. The Crusaders borrowed the Arabic practice of sleeping on pillows, cushions, and rugs thrown upon the floor. Before that, the common people in Europe slept on piles of straw, tree boughs, or similar material heaped in a corner of their house. The word mattress comes from
the Arabic word matrah, which means a place where something is thrown.
Keeping Clean in the Islamic Empire
For the Arab people, personal cleanliness was always important. During the height of the Islamic Empire, the Arabs were the first to use hard soap made out of olive oil, alkali, and natron, a type of salt. Under Muslim control, Italy and spain became soap-making centers. from here, soap was exported to other parts of Europe. Muslims in Spain and Italy also helped popularize the connection between cleanliness and health. Muslim doctors put forth many theories about the role that poor hygiene played in sickness and the spread of disease. Hammamat, or bathhouses, were believed to play a key role in preventing contagious diseases from spreading. They were even known as “silent doctors.” Inspectors carefully examined each hammam to make sure it was kept clean. today, hammamat are still found throughout the middle East. Many are attached to mosques. The Muslims also popularized dental hygiene. Although they did not invent the toothbrush or toothpaste, Muslim doctors helped advance knowledge of the mouth and teeth, and the need to keep them clean.
The Clever Courtier
How could a courtier stay out of trouble? According to vizier Nizam al-Mulk (d. 1092), the perfect courtier should always agree with everything the caliph had to say and: Should be essentially honorable and of excellent character, of cheerful disposition and irreproachable in respect of his religion, discreet and a clean liver. He should be able to tell a story and repeat a narrative either humorous or grave, and he should remember news. He should also be consistently a carrier of pleasant tidings and the announcer of felicitous [fortunate] happenings. He should also have acquaintance of backgammon and chess, and if he can play a musical instrument and can handle a weapon, it is all the better.
(Source: Nizam al-Mulk. “On the Courtiers and Familiars of Kings,” from Treatise on the Art of Government, translated by Reuben Levy, M.A., 1929. Medieval Sourcebook.
Salukis: The Dogs of Caliphs
The saluki is one of the oldest-known breeds of domesticated dogs. Thousands of years ago, Bedouin tribes used the sharp-eyed and lightning-fast salukis, also known as gazelle hounds, to hunt gazelle and other animals. The dogs were so highly prized that they were even allowed to sleep in the tents of their masters. In ancient Egypt, the dogs were kept by pharaohs and became known as the “royal dogs of Egypt.” Only royalty were allowed to keep these animals, and a favorite dog might be mummified and placed in his master’s tomb. After the rise of the Islamic Empire, the dogs became popular as the pets of the caliphs. They accompanied the caliph on hunting expeditions, and were often given to friends and important people as signs of royal favor and esteem. Salukis are sleek, silky animals that hunt by sight and are part of a group of dogs known as sighthounds. Like Greyhounds, they are swift and intelligent animals. In some countries, salukis are raced against one another.
Fun and Games
Chess was the caliph’s game of choice. He even held chess championships at the palace. While this game of strategy had come to persia from India, it was introduced to Europe by the Muslims. The term checkmate, which in chess means one player has cornered the other’s king, comes from the Arabic phrase shah mat, which means “the king is dead.”
other games borrowed from the persians and popularized by the Muslims include polo and backgammon—both of which are still played today.
The Zamzam Well
The Zamzam well is located in Mecca, a few yards east of the Kaaba. It is 115 feet deep and is topped by an elegant dome. Muslims believe that allah created the well to provide for hagar, a wife of the Biblical figure Abraham (the Judeo-Christian Bible says hagar was a servant in Abraham’s household), who was the mother of Ishmael. When Hagar was forced to leave Abraham’s household, she and her baby son wandered in the desert and eventually were overcome with thirst. In her desperate search for water, Hagar ran seven times back and forth between the two hills of Safa and Marwa. Then, in despair, she sat down and waited to die. Allah saw her effort and miraculously blessed the spot with a spring. Muslims on the hajj pilgrimage recall this event by circling the same hills seven times, and by drinking the water of the Zamzam well. It is said to be able to satisfy both thirst and hunger. Pilgrims to Mecca collect the water in bottles to bring home to relatives and friends who are ill, because it is also said to have healing powers.
* In the book 'Empire of the Islamic World' (Great Empires of the Past), Chelsea House Publishers- New York, 2010 p. 73-93 Adapted by Leopoldo Costa.
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